Saturday, October 18, 2014

Atomic Hydrogen Power (1911-1945)


Early Atomic Hydrogen Power, A Discussion of


Early Atomic Hydrogen Power 1911-1945

Breaking The Hydrogen Atom in 1911 was credited to USA scientist and Noble Prize winner Dr. Irving Langmuir. One of Dr. Langmuir's greatest scientific achievements was his breaking the hydrogen atom with 300 volts to 650 volts of electricity passing through an electric arc utilizing tungsten filaments thereby discovering hydrogen fusion power. His subsequent contributions with his General Electric colleagues to the later 1920s atomic hydrogen weldingmachine that was put on the international marketplace by General Electric, was mentioned mostly in science publications and welding trade publications that were available for purchase, as well as General Electric’s international catalogue that cost five cents at that time. Atomic hydrogen arc welding is known to have helped revolutionize the welding process.

By the mid-1930s, the atomic hydrogen arc welding apparatus was portable (Langmuir correctly concluded that hydrogen atom recombination was responsible and that the phenomenon could be put to use with an arc discharge in hydrogen propelled against metal parts to be welded. A U.S. Patent, No. 1947 627 was issued in 1934. [1]) and also sold to the international public by General Electric that also offered build-it-yourself kits. More than 200,000 Americans used the atomic hydrogen arc welding apparatus before 1945 for railroads, ships, boilers, airplanes, and other metal projects. Germany was known to be the largest user of the atomic hydrogen arc welding apparatus. It was also popular in many other European countries. In the United States, early users of atomic hydrogen arc welding were made to wear heavy specialized outfits to protect themselves from possible dangerous radiation, and to wear photographic film that measured radiation levels. (Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding was also sometimes called Hydrogen Arc Welding, Atomic Hydrogen Welding, or Fusion Welding, not all fusion welding was Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding).







Dr. Irving Langmuir wrote himself in a 1925 Science article “Special Articles: Flames of Atomic Hydrogen” that “A study of the heat losses from tungsten filaments at very high temperatures in an atmosphere of hydrogen led the writer [Dr. Irving Langmuir] to conclude in 1911 that hydrogen is largely dissociated into atoms of temperatures of 2,500 º K or more. The total heat loss from the filament after subtracting that due to radiation increased in proportion to the 7th power of the temperature at temperatures over 2,700 º K, whereas the normal heat loss by convection as determined for example in nitrogen, should have increased with 1/8th power of the temperature. Further work showed . . . that by heating a platinum or tungsten filament above 1,700 º K in hydrogen at low pressures, atomic hydrogen was formed which had very remarkable properties . . .” [2]

In spite of the wars and huge military capability of atomic hydrogen power, the communications of atomic hydrogen power’s industrial products and potential medical uses of atomic hydrogen power remained open internationally through trade magazines and commercial catalogues available to the international public for the potential benefit of humankind to participate in advanced technology that would affect everyday life.

Dr. Langmuir’s, Professor Wood’s Atomic Hydrogen Research

Dr. Langmuir won the Nobel Prize for his work in surface chemistry in 1932, and Harold Urey wrote in 1933’s Scientific American that Langmuir’s “outstanding inventions include the gas-filled incandescent lamp, a hydrogen welding torch, a very rapid high vacuum pump, as well as many other improvements in the field of electricity and chemistry. In 1912 he published his first paper on atomic hydrogen, and with the exception of the discovery by Professor Robert W. Wood that atomic hydrogen could be removed from electrical discharge tubes and pumped for considerable distances away from them, almost the whole development of atomic hydrogen has been the result of his pioneer work. His early papers deal with the heat of decomposition of molecular hydrogen into atoms, and, though the value secured was not as exact as values which have been determined since then by more reliable methods, his work was an outstanding accomplishment at the time. The invention of the hydrogen welding torch was the result of correlating the work of Wood with his. own. observations and gave us an exceedingly high temperature reducing flame for the welding of metals. / Irving Langmuir was born in Brooklyn, New York, on January 31, 1881, and was graduated from New York City’s Columbia University’s [school of mines] in 1903 with the degree of metallurgical engineer, after which he spent three years in postgraduate work at the University of Gottingen, taking his Ph.D. degree under Walther Nernst. He returned to the United States in 1906 and became an instructor in chemistry at the Stevens Institute of Technology [located in Hoboken, New Jersey] where he is at present associate director, and where his valuable contributions to science and industry have been made. During this time he has received many honorary degrees and other honors from universities and scientific societies, the latest being the Nobel Prize, awarded in chemistry, for the year 1931, by the Swedish Academy of Sciences. [3] And, “Worldwide recognition came to him for his work. In addition to the Nobel Prize in 1932 Langmuir was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1935. Already in 1918 he was chosen Hughes Medallist of the Society and gave the Pilgrim Trust Lecture to the Society in 1938. The Chemical Society of London, academies in France, Italy, Sweden, Brazil, and India, among others, honoured him with election to membership and to coveted medals and prizes. Fourteen universities gave him honorary degrees including Oxford, Edinburgh, Harvard, Princeton and the Johns Hopkins University.” [4] Dr. Langmuir was known as a brilliant chemist and is also known for the scientific terminology he created, such as “covalent bonds” and the word “plasma.”

Experimenting with Thorium and Tungsten

Professor Robert W. Wood and Dr. Irving Langmuir also experimented utilizing thoria/thorium along with tungsten and some of that research was published in 1922. [5] Mentioned is that “The addition of thoria aimed at the prevention of crystal growth of the tungsten metal, the prevention of ‘off-setting'. Langmuir traced the effect on the electron emission to the partial dissociation of the thorium oxide by the tungsten with release of metallic thorium which migrated to the filament surface. In the form of a layer adherent to the underlying tungsten, it had a lower work function than thorium metal.”

Experimenting with Voltage

Dr. Irving Langmuir, associate director of General Electric in Schenectady, NY, and Dr. Robert W. Wood, professor of experimental physics at the United States’ Johns Hopkins University found that “’Electric currents of twenty amperes and at voltages ranging from 300 to 800 were passed through two tungsten rods so as to form an arc similar to the arc between carbon rods in a street arc light. By passing a stream of hydrogen gas into the arc from a small tube, an intensely hot flame is produced, because the molecules of hydrogen are broken up by the temperature of the arc into their constituent atoms. As the ordinary form of hydrogen is that of molecules, the atoms almost immediately recombine, but in doing so they liberate great amounts of heat, about half again as much as the oxy-hydrogen flame. Iron rods an eighth of an inch in diameter melt within a few seconds when held about an inch above the arc, says Dr. Langmuir, metals even harder to melt than iron, such as tungsten and molybdenum, one of the most refractory substances known, melt with ease, Quartz, however, melts with more difficulty than molybdenum, which Dr. Langmuir suggests as being due to the fact that the metals act as a catalyzer . . . The use of hydrogen under these conditions for melting metals has proved to have many advantages, Dr. Langmuir said, Iron can be melted or welded without contamination by carbon, oxygen or nitrogen. Because of the powerful reducing action of the atomic hydrogen, alloys containing chromium, aluminum, silicon or manganese can be welded without fluxes without surface oxidation. The rapidity with which such metals as iron can be melted seems to exceed that of the oxy-acetylene flame, so that the process promises to be particularly valuable for welding. The other method of producing ductile welds was developed at the Thomson Research Laboratory of the General Electric Company at Lynn, Massachusetts, by Peter Alexander, independently of Dr. Langmuir’s work. . . The electric arc is passed between the metal to be welded and an 'iron electrode, and the gaseous atmosphere is supplied in the form of a stream around the arc, so as to keep it entirely away from air. Pure hydrogen, water gas, methanol or wood alcohol vapor, or dry ammonia can be used, as well as a mixture of hydrogen and nitrogen, for it is found that the nitrogen is not harmful unless oxygen is also present. All of these mixtures contain hydrogen, and Dr. Langmuir suggests that this method also depends in part for its efficacy on the disintegration of hydrogen molecules into their atoms." [6]

Professor W. Geoffrey Duffield’s Electric Arc and Hydrogen

Dr. Langmuir was ahead in his tungsten research, but other scientists noted that other metals were not as useful with hydrogen, such as Professor Duffield. In “Communicated by Sir Ernest Rutherford, F.R.S. Received July 16, 1915” is mentioned that Physics Professor W. Geoffrey Duffield states that “Metallic arcs, for instance, burn with difficulty in an atmosphere of hydrogen unless the poles be of magnesium or zinc, or some metal which forms a hydride, and even then the nature of the arc is modified, as we can tell by examining its spectrum, which, instead of being confined to metallic lines, is now rich in those of the surrounding gas.” [7]

Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding in the 1930s

Mechanical Engineer Arthur Stephenson described atomic hydrogen of the 1933 Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, “Atomic Hydrogen. In the process of atomic hydrogen welding the arc is maintained between tungsten electrodes, having a melting point in the order of 3,000 °С. and working from an alternating current supply. Whilst the arc is maintained a jet of hydrogen is blown over the ends of the electrodes and through the arc, absorbing heat there from sufficient to convert the hydrogen from the molecular to the atomic state, which, on recombining, forms a flame and gives up heat by which means the major portion of the heat of the arc is transferred to the work for the welding operation. The hydrogen ultimately burns by combination with atmospheric gases (Fig 13). We see in the atomic hydrogen process a modification of the principles suggested by Werdermann, who, in the first place, proposed to ‘blow’ the arc by means of a jet of air, but later employed a magnet for the same purpose. The obvious disadvantage of Werdermann's method was the rapid combustion of the carbon electrodes with atmospheric oxygen. This is largely overcome in the atomic process by the use of hydrogen which maintains a reducing atmosphere in the arc zone and about the weld. Burning the tungsten electrodes is thereby reduced to a minimum. The alternating current arc serves to maintain a uniform flow of the arc stream in both directions. Consequently the tungsten electrodes have quite a long life; their gradual but ultimate consumption is, however, inevitable. As the atomic hydrogen process is, in some respects, quite a radical departure from the ordinary processes of arc welding, further reference is made to it . . . “ [8]

General Electric, Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding, 1925-1940

The technical development of the atomic hydrogen welding apparatus was done by Langmuir with additional Schenectady General Electrical scientists R.A. Weinman, and Robert Palmer. They found the intense atomic hydrogen heat could melt difficult metals such as “molybdenum,” and that “iron can be melted or welded without contamination by carbon, oxygen or nitrogen. Because of the powerful reducing action of the atomic hydrogen, alloys containing chromium, aluminum, silicon or manganese can be melted without fluxes and without oxidation . . .” Either AC or DC electric current was used, and was able to break the hydrogen atom with between 300 volts to 650 volts of electricity with tungsten electrodes. The first atomic-hydrogen welding machine used little gas. This caused a breakthrough in welding as seam welders did not have to use rivets. It was also known for being “suitable for thin sections,” according to Railway Age’s April 24, 1926 article on “Gas-Electric Welding,” and “Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding” in Boiler Maker dated August 1, 1926. [9] Mentioned also is that “The two electrodes of the torch are tungsten rods, held at an acute angle with each other by lava insulators.“ And, that “In testing welds by this process, the welded portions have been twisted and bent double without cracking or otherwise being injured. Such a procedure has not been possible with the ordinary arc weld, since such welds are usually brittle because of the presence of nitrides or a thin film of oxide or scale, removed in the new process by the presence of hydrogen.”

Scientists & Hydrogen Gas and Electricity, mid-1800s-1911

Hydrogen and hydrogen gas had the interest of scientists since at least the middle of the 1800s. In 1911 in Radioactivity, Bertram B. Boltwood wrote, “The study of the discharge of electricity through gases and the properties of radioactive substances has done much to broaden our knowledge of the relations of electricity and matter. It has served to throw a new light on the ultimate constitution of matter itself, and, while confirming the older theory of a discontinuous or atomic structure, has led to the presumption that the chemical atom is not only divisible into still smaller entities, but that in some cases it can undergo a spontaneous disruption accompanied by the ejectment of certain of its constituent parts at high velocities. All this has opened a broad and attractive field for more or less legitimate speculation and conjecture. Since the first recognition by Becquerel in 1897 of the radioactive phenomena exhibited by the element uranium, the extension of our knowledge of the radioactive substances has steadily and progressively advanced. This development has been due in great part to the early formulation of the theory of atomic disintegration, proposed in 1902 by Rutherford and Soddy, which has served as a systematic foundation and has afforded an orderly basis for the interpretation of the otherwise somewhat complicated relations.” [10]

1930s Medical Community and Atomic Hydrogen Power

David Riesman M.D., Sc.D.. professor of the history of medicine at the University of Pennsylvania wrote in 1936 for The Scientific Monthly that “Some of the great discoveries of chemistry do not seem to have an immediate application to medicine, but that does not prevent their possible usefulness in the future. Heavy water containing hydrogen of atomic weight 2 and 3 may have biologic properties. It has forced us to give up the original idea of the immutability and unitary character of the chemical elements.” [11]

Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding and Trade Publications

American Welding Trade Organizations and The General Electric Company give Atomic-Hydrogen Arc Welding Demonstrations at Conferences Utilizing Slideshows in the mid-1920s. And by the mid-1920s, trade publications began to cover atomic hydrogen welding.

According to trade publications such as in 1926 Boiler Maker, that started covering atomic hydrogen welding, stated atomic hydrogen power could be created by passing “powerful electric arcs between tungsten electrodes at atmospheric pressure.” [12],[13],[14]

In an article on “Gas-Electric Welding” in Railway Age in April 1926, mentioned is the atomic hydrogen arc method. [15]

In The Living Age article dated October 15, 1926 entitled “America and France. II” by A. De Touf, Dr. Langmuir, atomic hydrogen and The General Electric Company are mentioned in the first paragraph, The article considers the vast amount spent on scientific technology by Schenectady, NY’s General Electric Company compared to the little spent in France. [16]

The “Fall Meeting of the American Welding Society,” was held in Buffalo, New York in conjunction with the second International Welding and Cutting Exposition from November 16-19, 1926. They were mentioned in the Boiler Maker issue of January 1, 1927 (page 12). The atomic-hydrogen welding method was described on Friday morning by General Electric scientist R.A. Weinman as being in the experimental phase of development, and he used “lantern slides” to present the technology. [17]

The annual spring meeting of the American Welding Society was held at the Engineering Societies Building in New York from April 27th-29th, 1927, and was mentioned in Railway Mechanical Engineer on May 1st, 1927 in “American Welding Society meets at New York: Technical papers." “R.R. Moore of the Physical Testing Branch of the United States Air Service read a most interesting paper on the fatigue of the welds.” And, that “The tests described cover welds made by the gas, electric arc, and atomic hydrogen processes.” Moore mentioned that repeated stresses on welds was not yet thoroughly studied, but that the atomic hydrogen weld in its experimental stage had a slightly lower endurance ratio, and that with welds in general the ½ inch diameter welded tubes “showed a better resistance to fatigue than the 1 inch diameter tubes.” [18]

In Railway Mechanical Engineer article “Refinements in Shop Equipment Design,” on June 1, 1928 reported is that “The increasing use of welding in railway shops has resulted in the design of many portable electric welding machines. Two years ago, the new process of welding with atomic hydrogen was announced. During the past year, a welding outfit was placed on the market which makes it possible to weld by this process.” [19]

An article by John D. Crecca (office of superintending contractor, United States Navy, Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation, Ltd., Quincy, Massachusetts) for Marine Engineering and Shipping Age entitled “Welding in Ship Construction: Analysis of Cost, weight, and strength factors of welding as compared with riveting in hull work” dated May 1, 1929 (page 266) mentions that there were improvements on the ductility of welds by “new processes” such as by General Electric Company’s atomic hydrogen welding. [20]

Several trade publications wrote about the large Atomic Hydrogen Welding machine that looked approximately 12 feet long around 1930. On May 1, 1930, Marine Engineering and Shipping Age did a write-up called “Trade Publications” that mentioned “Welding─The General Electric Company, Schenectady, NY has issued a 42-page booklet entitled ‘Arc Welding in Industry.’ This volume illustrates the methods used in structural work, ship construction, tank construction, and various other applications where riveting may be eliminated. A section of the bulletin is devoted to the atomic hydrogen arc-welding process." [21]

“Atomic-Hydrogen Welding Machine” Railway Mechanical Engineer (1916-1949); page 720, December 1, 1930; American Periodicals

In his Nobel Lecture, dated December 14, 1932 entitled “Surface Chemistry,” Dr. Irving Langmuir mentions his work with atomic hydrogen among his other areas of expertise.

At a “Purdue Welding Conference” reported by Boiler Maker and Plant Fabricator on January 1, 1934 (page 22), “A registered attendance of 330 at the Welding Conference held at Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana on December 7 and 8, last, indicates the growing interest and importance of the conference. This is the largest registration since the first conference was held nine years ago. A number of manufacturers or welding equipment and supplies exhibited their products and conducted various welding demonstrations, such as welding aluminum, cast iron, copper, cutting casting iron, applying hard surface metals, and demonstrations of atomic hydrogen and resistance welding.” [22]

In “Welding Developments in Shipbuilding” written by W.D. Strathdee (Welding Specialist, Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company, Boston, Massachusetts) that appeared in Marine Engineering and Shipping Review in the July 1, 1937 issue (page 370), more photos started to appear of welders. On the bottom of the first page appears the photo with caption “Atomic welding machine used in sheet metal shop,” with a welder using the atomic hydrogen process. [23]

In the 1940s, General Electric in Schenectady, New York started to make films of the atomic hydrogen welding process that appear at the end of this article that are on YouTube.

Occupational Hazards of Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welders

By 1937, safety concerns of atomic hydrogen arc welders and the complaints were making it to the trade magazines. In 1943, it was reported that there were 200,000 atomic arc welders in the United States that year, but that was a rough estimate as there could have been more, according to the source. American atomic hydrogen arc welders were concerned that unknown radioactive particles were causing sterility and other health issues. The atomic hydrogen arc welders industry denied these particular accusations. In “Factors in Arc Welding” states that “Mystery rays are not present, although it is surprising how many times the rumor crops up that that this or that arc-welding equipment gives off radiations which result in sterility or peculiar ailments such as might be attributed to x-rays. Such rumors have been disposed of effectively by having welding operators carry in their clothing pieces of photographic film for weeks at a time. None show the slightest evidence of radiation.” [24]

It is unclear if death by falls reported of atomic hydrogen arc welders were due to the heavy equipment and outfits worn by welders, or if they suffered from radiation sickness, or for some other reason. The British journal of Industrial Medicine in 1945 did mention some occupational hazards of welders in general that included atomic hydrogen arc welders. [25] In the United States in 1976, a new particle was found in the breakup of the hydrogen atom mentioned later in this article, but it is unclear if that would have affected the atomic hydrogen welders.

According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, when the hydrogen atom is broken it emits isotopes of hydrogen known as deuterium (or Heavy Hydrogen) and tritium that are the interacting nuclei for nuclear fusion, a high heat that is radioactive. Depending on how the process is accomplished is in relation to how much radiation is emitted. This was known in the 1930s. Harold C. Urey (Nobel Prize winner in chemistry in 1934) wrote in a 1936 article for Encyclopedia Britannica, that “The great scientific value of deuterium is due largely to the successful separation of this variety of hydrogen from natural hydrogen.” According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, Tritium (T, or H3) “has a half-life of 12.32 years, an isotope of hydrogen, was discovered in 1934 by physicists Ernest Rutherford, M.L. Oliphant, and Paul Harteck. Willard Frank Libby and Aristid V. Grosse revealed tritium exists in natural water in trace quantities by the action of the sun’s rays on atmospheric nitrogen.” [26]

New Hydrogen Ion Particle Discovered in 1976

In “Doubly Charged Negative Atomic Ions of Hydrogen,” published in 1976, scientists supposedly found an additional previously unknown substance when the hydrogen atom is broken. Scientists wrote “The existence of a relatively long-lived doubly charged negative atomic ion H2- (and D2-), isoelectronic with the lithium atom, has been demonstrated by mass spectrometry through a combined analysis of ion energy, velocity, and momentum. This species, formed in a hydrogen plasma, has a half-life of 2.3 x 108 seconds before it spontaneously dissociates to produce H- ions. Hydrogen is the most abundant and simplest element in the universe. The hydrogen atom was the first atom to be understood from first principles, and the H2 molecule may very well be the best theoretically understood molecular species. In fact, theoretical chemistry predicted the existence of the H- ion (1) before it was demonstrated by mass spectrometry (2) and long before its role was postulated in astrophysics (3). The existence of H2- was also theoretically predicted (4), but it took almost 40 years before a long-lived H2- ion was unambiguously (5) demonstrated in the laboratory (6). On the other hand, the existence of a long-lived H3- ion, which was demonstrated in the same study (5), was not predicted on theoretical grounds (7). A recent series of experiments has demonstrated the existence of yet another hydrogen species, a relatively long-lived doubly charged negative hydrogen ion, H2-. Although H2- has been suggested previously as a short-lived transient in the reaction e + H- -- H + 2e (8), this finding of a long-lived H2- is significant. In addition to its theoretical significance, it has implications in plasma physics, including fusion research, and in astrophysics, since H- is recognized as a predominant source of opacity in solar and stellar photospheres (9). This report is meant to bring this discovery to the attention of the scientific community. [27]

The Future of Atomic Hydrogen Power

Atomic hydrogen arc welding later merged into a more advanced form called plasma arc welding.

In general, Atomic Hydrogen Power was known to be safer than most other radioactive energy because its byproducts are known to exist in extremely small quantities in nature; and, it was also known to have much more potential power. There does not seem to be much more development of it for clean energy usage in the 21st Century.

External Links: 1940s Videos of Atomic Hydrogen Welding:

The Inside of Hydrogen Arc Welding, 1943 General Electric film (Part 1): http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uZwYMyHlWXk

Inside of Hydrogen Arc Welding, 1943 General Electric film (Part2): http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kz-S5wLGHwI

Arc Welding at Work, 1948 General Electric film (video time, hydrogen arc welding, around video time 15:47 to 22.39): http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m9So05JygUU


Other─Plasma Fusion Welding: http://www.weldfusion.com/welding-safety.html

References

  1.  “Irving Langmuir. 1881-1957” by Hugh Taylor. Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, page 177, Vol. 4, November 1958.
  2. “Flames of Atomic Hydrogen” by Irving Langmuir, Science, New Series, Vol. 62, No. 1612, November 20, 1925, pp. 463-464. Published by: American Association for the Advancement of Science.
  3.  “Dr. Langmuir, Recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry” by Harold C. Urey. The Scientific Monthly, page 95, Vol. 36, No. 1. January 1933. Published by: American Association for the Advancement of Science.
  4.  “Irving Langmuir. 1881-1957” by Hugh Taylor. Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, pp. 167-184, Vol. 4, November 1958.
  5.  “Spontaneous Incandescence of Substances in Atomic Hydrogen Gas” by R.W. Wood. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character, pp. 6-8, Vol. 102, No. 714, October 2, 1922.
  6. “Metal Welding Methods Revolutionized by New Inventions,” The Science News-Letter, pp. 2-3, Vol. 8, No. 264, May 1, 1926. Published by: Society for Science & the Public.
  7.  “The Consumption of Carbon in the Electric Arc. I.-Variation with Current and Arc-length. II.-Influence upon the Luminous Radiation from the Arc.” By W. Geoffrey Duffield, D.SC., Professor of Physics, and Dean of the Faculty of Science in University College, Reading. Page 135. (Communicated by Sir Ernest Rutherford, F.R.S. Received July 16, 1915).
  8.  “PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY CANTOR LECTURES WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSES” By Arthur Stephenson, M.I.Mech.E. Vice-President, Institution of Welding Engineers. Journal of the Royal Society for the Arts, p 986, p 991, September 22, 1933 (Delivered in March , 1933.
  9.  “Gas-Electric Welding, Railway Age, page 1127, April 24, 1926; 80, 21; American Periodicals.
  10.  “Radioactivity” by Bertram B. Boltwood. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, pp.333-346, Vol. 50, No. 200, July – August 1911), Published by: American Philosophical Society.
  11.  “Three Quarters of a Century of Medical Progress,” by David Riesman. The Scientific Monthly, p. 130, Vol. 42, No. 2, February 1936. Published by: American Association for the Advancement of Science.
  12. Front Material 3 -- No Title Boiler Maker (1904-1933); January 1, 1926; 26, 1; American Periodicals.
  13.  “Fall Meeting of the American Welding Society,” Boiler Maker (1904-1933); page 12, January 1, 1927; 27, 1; American Periodicals.
  14. "Electric Welding Developments" by John Liston. Boiler Maker and Plate Fabricator (1934-1937); page 8, January 1, 1934; 34, 1; American Periodicals.
  15.  “Gas-Electric Welding," Railway Age, page 1127, April 24, 1926; 80, 21; American Periodicals.
  16.  “AMERICA AND FRANCE. II” DE TEOUF, A. The Living Age (1897-1941); page 25, Oct 15, 1926; 331, 4292; American Periodicals.
  17.  "Fall Meeting of the American Welding Society,” Boiler Maker (1904-1933); page 12, January 1, 1927; 27, 1; American Periodicals.
  18. “American Welding Society meets at New York: Technical papers ...” Railway Mechanical Engineer (1916-1949); page 304, May 1, 1927; 101, 5; American Periodicals.
  19.  “Refinements in shop equipment design,” Railway Mechanical Engineer (1916-1949); page 340, June 1, 1928; 102, 6; American Periodicals.
  20.  “Welding in Ship Construction: Analysis of cost, weight and strength ...” by John D. Crecca, Marine Engineering & Shipping Age (1923-1935); page 266, May 1, 1929; 34, 5; American Periodicals.
  21. Marine Engineering & Shipping Age (1923-1935); page 289, May 1, 1930; 35, 5; American Periodicals.
  22.  “Purdue Welding Conference,” Boiler Maker and Plant Fabricator, page 22, January 1, 1934, 34,1; American Periodicals.
  23.  “Welding Development in Shipbuilding” by W.D. Strathdee. Marine Engineering and Shipping Review (1935-1952), pp. 370-373, July 1, 1937; 42, 7; American Periodicals.
  24.  “Some Safety Factors in Arc Welding,” by R.F. Wyer, Application Engineer, Electric Welding Division, General Electric Company, Railway Engineering and Maintenance, page 670, July 1, 1945;1, American Periodicals.
  25.  “Memorandum on Welding Processes and their Hazards,” Leeds Joint Council on Industrial Medicine. British Journal of Industrial Medicine, pp 237-238, Vol. 2, No. 4, October 1945, Published by: the British Medical Journal.
  26. Encyclopedia Britannica online accessed July-September 2014.
  27.  “Doubly Charged Negative Atomic Ions of Hydrogen” by Michael Anbar and Rafael Schnitzer. Science, New Series, pp. 463-464, Vol. 191, No. 4226, February 6, 1976. Published by: American Association for the Advancement of Science.




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